Model units & connections
This page describes how modelling tools allow users to discretise catchments into modelled units in order to represent and calculate hydrological processes. Differentiating the catchment into separate components or units, such as subcatchments, patches of similar land cover, or soil layers with distinct properties, allows hydrological processes to be modelled by algorithms that have been developed for that scale and type of unit.
Each modelling tool has a unique way of describing a catchment in terms of:
- The types surface and subsurface model units that can be included
- The connections that can be defined between these different units
- The process algorithms that are used to calculate inflows, storage, and outflows for each unit
This page summarises the unit types and connection options available across the tools, while their process algorithms are described on a processes page here. Although described on separate pages, the approach to discretisation and the process algorithms used are inextricably linked. This page also summarises some implications of the structural differences across the tools, which are dealt with in more detail for some specific model application contexts here.
The material on this page may go into more depth than you might be looking for. If all you need is a very brief overview of the structures and capabilities of the different modelling tools, that summary info can be found on the capabilities page, here.
Basic approaches for representing catchments in the different modelling tools
The schematic diagrams and tables below describe the main discretisation approaches used in each tool in terms of breaking up catchments into units and specifying linkages. For MIKE-SHE, because the tool offers many options, two generalised set-up approaches have been described (more background on these is given here).
 Subcatchment delineation: Demonstration of: (a) a catchment area delineated into subcatchments and (b) the flow network connections of these subcatchments when used as model units. This approach is used to some degree in all the modelling tools covered (except MIKE-SHE when fully distributed). Subcatchments 4,5,6,8 are not headwaters and their river channels receive flow from upstream subcatchments. Figures from: Schulze, R.E. (1995). Hydrology and Agrohydrology: A Text to Accompany the ACRU 3.00 Agrohydrological Modelling System (Water Research Commission). |
 Subcatchments as units for process modelling: Diagram illustrating the approach taken in SPATSIM-Pitman of using the subcatchment as the primary unit for representing processes. Flow through the subcat can be conceptualised as flow through a generalised hillslope, which provides a means of modelling groundwater flow and exchange with the river channel. Special subareas (e.g. irrigated crops) impact the subcat's infiltration, surface runoff, ET, and recharge. Interflow and aquifer exchange with the channel are calculated based on the resulting subcatchment-scale storage. WRSM-Pitman & SWAT follow a related approach for groundwater in that aquifers are modelled at the subcatchment scale. Figures from: Hughes, D.A. (2004). Incorporating groundwater recharge and discharge functions into an existing monthly rainfall–runoff model. Hydrological Sciences Journal, 49. |
 Modular network of modelling units: Example WRSM-Pitman model network diagram (catchment of the Churchill Dam, quaternaries K90A&B), demonstrating a catchment composed of modules linked by routes. Subcatchment boundaries are not set-up in the tool; however, sets of linked modules are subcats in effect. (Also, though shown as separate units, each 'irrigation module' is modelled as part of a specified 'runoff module' for groundwater modelling.) ACRU4 uses a similar modular network approach, although ACRU units are grouped into subcatchments. Figure from: Bailey, A.K., and Pitman, W.V. (2015). Water Resources of South Africa 2012 Study (WR2012) (Water Research Commission). |
 Networks of modelling units within subcatchments: Demonstration ACRU4 model network diagram showing HRUs (as coloured squares), river channel, and dam units grouped within subcatchments. Climate can be input at the subcatchment scale and certain relationships may only be allowed between units in the same subcatchment (e.g. routing HRU subsurface flow to a special riparian HRU). The figure also shows that withdrawals and external inputs can be included for rivers and dams. Figure from: Clark, D.J., Smithers, J.C., Thornton-Dibb, S.L.C., and Lutchminarian, A. (2012). ACRU 4 User Manual: User Interface & Tutorials in Volume 3 of Deployment, Maintenance, & Further Development of SPATSIM-HDSF. (Water Research Commission). |
 HRUs as units for process modelling: Schematic diagram of process representation for an HRU (hydrological response unit) in ACRU4. Each HRU includes a groundwater/baseflow store. SWAT2012 also uses HRUs to model surface and shallow subsurface processes, but models groundwater at the subcatchment scale. Figure modified from: Schulze, R.E. (1995). Hydrology and Agrohydrology: A Text to Accompany the ACRU 3.00 Agrohydrological Modelling System (Water Research Commission). | |
 Routing runoff from units in parallel or in series: Demonstration of subcatchment delineation into topographic units, which could serve as HRUs or process modelling zones, and related routing options. Runoff from each unit could be routed directly to the stream in parallel, or routed from one unit to the next in a downslope series. Series routing allows processes (infiltration, recharge, saturation seepage, etc) to occur along the path depending on states of downslope units (dry/saturated, flat/steep, rough/smooth, etc). It adds computational complexity. Different approaches can be more appropriate, or more important, in different settings, spatial scales, and for different runoff components (i.e. surface flow, interflow, groundwater flow). SPATSIM subareas in subcats modify subcat-scale runoff; no separate routing needed. WRSM's afforestation & alien veg modules are similar (act inside 'runoff modules'), but irrigation module surface runoff and interflow are routed in parallel to the linked 'runoff module'. ACRU4 routes all HRU 'quickflow' runoff in parallel and can optionally route 'baseflow' runoff into the soil of a specified 'riparian HRU'. SWAT2012 routes all HRU surface and 'lateral' (interflow) runoff in parallel, while groundwater is modelled at the subcat scale. MIKE-SHE grid cells are connected in series. If 'overland flow zones' are used, surface runoff can be routed in series or in parallel. If interflow and baseflow linear reservoirs are used, interflow is routed in series and groundwater in parallel (if multiple aquifers used). | ||
 3D grid cells as units for process modelling: Illustration of the approach used in MIKE-SHE for modelling processes using a 3D grid, i.e. grid cells on the surface (2D) with columns of material below that are broken into layers. (For those familiar with HRUs, each cell can be seen as similar to an HRU connected in series to its neighbors.) In the diagram part of the unsaturated zone is shown as transparent so that the gridded water table surface beneath can be more easily visualised. Figure source: DHI (2019). MIKE SHE Manual, Volume 1: User Guide, MIKE 2017 (Danish Hydrologic Institute). |
 Hybrid approach - different unit types for modelling different processes: Illustration of the more lumped, conceptual approach for representing interflow and groundwater flow with 'linear reservoir' units in MIKE-SHE. Other processes can still be modelled by grid cell. Interflow reservoirs have spatial extents and each receives percolating water from the grid cells that overly it. Similarly if multiple different mapped baseflow reservoirs (distinct aquifers) are included, these are recharged by overlying interflow units. SWAT2012 also uses a hybrid approach in that surface flow and 'lateral' flow (interflow) is modelled at the HRU scale, while the aquifer spans the subcatchment an is recharged by all the overlying HRUs. Figure source: DHI (2019). MIKE SHE Manual, Volume 2: Reference Guide, MIKE 2017 (Danish Hydrologic Institute). | |
| Level / Element | WRSM-Pitman
(Sami GW) |
SPATSIM-Pitman
(Hughes GW) |
ACRU4 | SWAT2012 | MIKE-SHE,
semi-distributed, more conceptual |
MIKE-SHE,
fully-distributed, more physical |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Catchments
& subcatchments (subcats) |
WRSM catchments are composed of ‘modules’ linked in a user-specified network.
Module types:
Subcatchments are not explicitly input, but runoff modules and sets of linked modules act as subcats. |
SPATSIM catchments are composed of subcatchments. Subcats are linked in spatially determined flow network (map input). |
ACRU4 catchments are composed of subcatchments Subcats are linked in a user-specified flow network. |
SWAT catchments are composed of subcatchments
Subcats are linked in a spatially determined flow network (delineated by SWAT from DEM input, or given as a map input) |
MIKE catchments can be composed of subcatchments Subcats are linked in spatially determined flow network (map input). |
MIKE catchments can be composed of 3D grid units. The surface is uniformly sized grid cells. Each cell has a column beneath: input layers of soil, sediment, rock.
|
| Units within
subcatchments |
A WRSM ‘runoff module’ with no linked special areas functions as a subcat. If special area modules are linked, then a set of modules functions as a subcat.
Special area modules that can be added are:
These appear as separate units, but function as sub-areas inside a specified linked runoff module.
|
SPATSIM subcatchments all contain a river channel and may have specified special sub-areas. Subcats can optionally include either a wetland or a reservoir/lake on the channel at the subcat outlet.
A special sub-area can be defined for any, or all, of the following in a subcat:
Impervious, high ET cover, and irrigation areas do not have defined spatial locations within the subcat. |
ACRU4 subcatchments are composed of one or more HRUs. Non-headwater subcats must contain a river channel. Subcats can optionally include additional channels and reservoir units. Units are linked in a user-specified network.
There are special HRUs for:
For most HRUs, all runoff is routed directly to a channel, reservoir, or subcat outlet node (in parallel). Optional exceptions: For ‘riparian HRUs’, ‘baseflow’ output from other HRUs can be routed to the riparian HRU soil. For ‘adjunct-impervious HRUs’, runoff is routed to the surface of another HRU. |
SWAT subcatchments are composed of:
Subcats can include an internal pond or wetland and a reservoir/lake on the channel at the subcat outlet.
|
MIKE-SHE subcatchments are composed of:
Surface runoff is lumped for grid cells within an overland flow zone & routed across zones in a downslope series to the channel (potential for infiltration on route).
Interflow reservoirs receive percolation from overlying grid cells. Interflow is laterally routed through a downslope series of reservoirs to the channel (potential for loss to recharge on route). Baselfow reservoirs are recharged by overlying interflow reservoirs and outflow to the channel in parallel. |
Using fully distributed MIKE-SHE, no subcat boundaries are input. Relative water surface or head elevations on the surface and in the 3D grid units drives flow exchange between units.
Different sets of zone polygons can be used for the different types of properties (e.g. vegetation types, soil types, aquifer extents); they do not need to be aligned with one another. |
| River channels | WRSM channels are modules in the network with multiple inflow and outflow links possible.
Channel modules can have an associated wetland storage/area. |
SPATSIM channels are units linked to subcats (one per subcat).
They receive the local subcat runoff & upstream subcat channel outflows. |
ACRU4 channels are units in a subcat network of units. (necessary in non-headwater subcats).
They receive runoff from linked HRUs, reservoirs, & upstream subcat outflows. |
SWAT channels are units linked to subcats (one main channel per subcat).
They receive the local subcat runoff & upstream subcat channel outflows. |
MIKE channels are composed of spatially explicit reaches between node points. Reaches with nodes mapped inside a subcat exchange water with the subcat. | MIKE channels are composed of spatially explicit reaches between node points. Reaches can exchange water with grid cells that border them. |
Links between discretisation and process representation
The scale of discretisation of the landscape influences which hydrological processes are individually represented and the algorithms and the timesteps that are appropriate (discussed in more detail here). In general, for larger spatial/vertical units, longer timesteps, more lumped process representation, and different property parameters are applicable compared to modelling with smaller units. This has to do with how long it’s likely to take for water to move through a modelled unit. For example, it may take a week for interflow to move through the 10 km long hillslope of subcatchment, but a day to move through the 1 km slope length of a patch of grassland within that subcatchment. Speeds vary by process. This also has to do with the fact that what we may model as one process at a larger spatial scale can be the result of several different processes occurring at smaller scales. For example, rain falling on a steep, rocky cliff may form surface runoff. However, if this surface runoff then flows across an area of permeable and unsaturated soil before reaching a stream channel, some may infiltrate and not reach the stream as surface flow. If one models a subcatchment where this is happening as a single unit, the equation and parameters for estimating ‘surface runoff generation’ would account for the net outcome of the surface runoff that actually reaches the stream, i.e. the combined impact of the cliff and the permeable toe-slope on surface runoff reaching the channel. If modelling the cliff and the toe-slope as separate units, surface runoff on the cliff unit could be calculated and then surface flow and infiltration on the toe-slope unit could be calculated as a separate set of processes.
| Units | WRSM-Pitman
(Sami GW) |
SPATSIM-Pitman
(Hughes GW) |
ACRU4 | SWAT2012 | MIKE-SHE,
semi-distributed, more conceptual |
MIKE-SHE,
fully-distributed, more physical |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Timesteps | Monthly*
|
Monthly*
|
Daily
|
Daily, subdaily
|
Daily, subdaily*
|
Daily, subdaily*
|
| Spatial units for: | ||||||
| Climate input | Modules (all) | Subcatchments | Subcatchments or HRUs*
*HRU-scale input is labor intensive |
Subcatchments | Grid cells or zones | Grid cells or zones |
| Surface & shallow subsurface processes | Runoff modules
+ special area modules |
Subcatchments
(+ internal special sub-areas) |
HRUs | HRUs | Grid cells
+ Overland flow zones + Interflow reservoir zones |
Grid cells |
| Groundwater processes | Runoff modules | Subcatchments | HRUs | Subcatchments | Baseflow reservoir zones | Grid cells |
Specific units, layers, & connections
Basic layers: land cover, soil & unsaturated zone, aquifers
The tables below describe in more detail how the modelling tools can represent the distribution of land cover types, soil types, and aquifer types in a catchment and vertical distribution of soil, sediment, and rock types using the modelling units described above and layers within these units. The linkages or routing of water between units and layers is highlighted here, and covered in more detail in sections on process algorithms.
Land cover
| Component | WRSM-Pitman
(Sami GW) |
SPATSIM-Pitman
(Hughes GW) |
ACRU4 | SWAT2012 | MIKE-SHE,
semi-distributed, more conceptual |
MIKE-SHE,
fully-distributed, more physical |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Spatial units for land cover type/property
distribution |
Modules & sub-areas within them | Subcatchments & sub-areas within them | HRUs | HRUs | Cover type polygons applied to grid cells | Cover type polygons applied to grid cells |
Extents of cover types are either defined in the:
Each runoff module can have different general cover specifications & linked special areas. |
Extents of cover types are defined as special sub-areas within a subcat.
Each subcat can have different general cover & sub-areas specifications. |
Each HRU has its own cover & vegetation parameters. | Each HRU has cover & vegetation parameters.
HRUs are assigned cover types using an input cover type map. Properties are input by type. |
Each grid cell is assigned a cover type using an input cover type map. Properties are input by type. | Each grid cell is assigned a cover type using an input cover type map. Properties are input by type. | |
| Limitations to types & number of types | Yes | Yes | No | No | No | No |
Types that can be represented:
|
Types that can be represented:
|
No limit on number of HRUs (hence cover types) per subcat. | No limit on number of HRUs or cover types per subcat. | No limit to number of cover types. | No limit to number of cover types. |
Soils & unsaturated zone
| Component | WRSM-Pitman
(Sami GW) |
SPATSIM-Pitman
(Hughes GW) |
ACRU4 | SWAT2012 | MIKE-SHE,
semi-distributed, more conceptual |
MIKE-SHE,
fully-distributed, more physical |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
|
Runoff modules & irrigation modules | Subcatchments | HRUs | HRUs | Soil type polygons applied to grid cells & ‘Interflow reservoir’ extent polygons | Soil type polygons applied to grid cells |
| Each ‘runoff module’ can have its own soil moisture store & ‘percolation storage’ properties.
Afforestation & alien veg modules use the soil of the runoff module they are linked to / part of. Irrigation modules have their own soil properties. |
Each subcat can have its own soil moisture store properties. | Each HRU can have its own soil properties | Each HRU can have its own soil properties.
HRUs are assigned soil types using an input soil type map. Properties are input by soil type. Individual HRU soil properties can by modified. |
Each grid cell is assigned a soil type using an input soil type map.
Interflow reservoir ‘type’ extents are input as a map (boundaries do not need to align with soil types or subcatchments) |
Each grid cell is assigned a soil type using an input soil type map. | |
| Vertical layers in soil or UZ profile | 2 Layers | 1 Layer | 2 Layers | 11 Layers (max) | 2(3) Layers* | Unlimited Layers |
A runoff modules has 2 ‘UZ’ layers:
|
A subcat has a single soil moisture storage unit. | An HRU has 2 soil layers:
Both in root zone. |
A soil type can have up to 10 layers (user input layers).
Profile can extend below root zone. Each HRU also has a vadose zone (lag storage) ‘layer’ below the soil profile |
A soil type has vertically uniform parameters (no layers), but each model grid cell has 2 computational UZ layers:
Interflow reservoirs are storage units fed by all overlying grid cells |
A soil type can have an unlimited number of layers (user input layers).
Profile can extend below root zone. | |
| Surface runoff routing
(w.r.t. spatial units) |
Parallel* | (n/a) | Parallel | Parallel | Series or parallel | Series |
| Parallel for runoff modules & irrigation modules.
Other special area modules modify runoff module flow |
Subcatchment scale | Parallel from HRUs in subcat | Parallel from HRUs in subcat | Across a series of mapped flow zones within a subcat
OR each zone in parallel |
Across grid cells based on elevation. | |
| Interflow routing (w.r.t. spatial units) | Parallel* | (n/a) | Parallel | Parallel | Series | Series |
| Parallel for runoff modules & irrigation modules
Other special area modules modify runoff module flow |
Subcatchment scale | Parallel from HRUs in subcat | Parallel from HRUs in subcat | Through a series of interflow reservoirs in a subcat | Through grid cells based on head. | |
| Capillary rise: 2-way connection to aquifer | Yes* | Yes* | No* | Yes | Yes* | Yes |
| Only in riparian zone sub-area of runoff module; represented as ET deficit met by GW | Only in riparian zone sub-area of subcat; represented as ET deficit met by GW | Water in the baseflow store of an ACRU4 HRU cannot move into the soil profile or be used for ET in the same HRU.
BUT when upland HRU baseflow is routed to riparian HRU soil this is similar to GW access in riparian zones in subcat scale models.... |
Represented as ET deficit met by GW; access can be set by HRU | Only for grid cells in riparian zone (lowest interflow zone); represented as ET deficit met by GW |
Aquifers
| Component | WRSM-Pitman
(Sami GW) |
SPATSIM-Pitman
(Hughes GW) |
ACRU4 | SWAT2012 | MIKE-SHE,
semi-distributed, more conceptual |
MIKE-SHE,
fully-distributed, more physical |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
Spatial units for distribution of aquifer types / properties |
Runoff modules | Subcatchments | HRUs | Subcatchments/HRUs* | ‘Baseflow reservoir’ extent polygons | Layer & lense polygons applied to grid cells |
| Each runoff module can have its own aquifer properties. | Each subcatchment module can have its own aquifer properties.
There is a spatial division into two slope sections, riparian & upslope, for process calculation, but these don’t have separate property parameters. |
Each HRU can have its own ‘baseflow storage’ properties. | Aquifer GW storage & outflow is calculated per subcat, but properties can be input per HRU to model capillary rise | ‘Baseflow reservoir’ type (aquifer type) spatial extents are input as a map (boundaries do not need to align with other inputs) | Each grid cell has a layered profile of aquifer material types based on the layers and lenses it overlies.
Property ‘layers’ cover entire the model domain, can have spatially variable thickness (grid input). ‘Lenses’ occur in certain areas (map input) also with variable thickness. | |
| Vertical layers within aquifers | 1 Layer | 1 Layer | 1 Layer | 2 Layers | 2 Layers | Unlimited Layers |
| A runoff module has one aquifer unit | A subcat has one aquifer store.
There a two linked horizontal sub sections, but no vertical divisions. |
An HRU has one ‘baseflow’ storage. | A subcat has 2 aquifer units:
|
A mapped ‘baseflow reservoir’ type can have 2 internal storage units with different parameters. | No limit on the aquifer material layers & lenses that can be input.
Calculation grid layers can be set differently to the aquifer property layers. In this case thickness-averaged parameters are assigned. | |
| GW flow routing between spatial units | Yes | Yes | (Limited) | No | No | Yes |
| GW flow between subcats | GW flow between subcats | No GW flow between subcats
Upslope HRU baseflow can be routed to riparian HRU soil within a subcat No other HRU GW exchanges included |
No GW flow between subcats | No GW flow between subcats
No GW flow between ‘baseflow reservoirs’ (aquifer types) within subcat |
GW flow between grid cells | |
| GW flow routing vertical aquifer units/layers | (n/a – single unit) | (n/a – single unit) | (n/a – single unit) | No | No | Yes |
| Shallow & deep aquifers each receive a portion of total recharge and do not interact (more like units than vertical layers) | The 2 units in a mapped baseflow reservoir type each receive a portion of total recharge and do not interact (more like units than vertical layers) | GW can flow between vertical layers based on head and conductivity | ||||
| GW flow out of model domain (catchment) | Yes | Yes | No | Yes* | No* | Yes |
| Only deep aquifer can have GW flow the model. (Deep aquifer does not feed channel, can be pumped) | Recharge can be allocated to ‘dead storage’ which has a similar impact. | GW outflow boundary condition must be set-up |